Period 7: 1890-1945

Key Concept 7.3 - Participation in a series of global conflicts propelled the United States into a position of international power while renewing domestic debates over the nation's proper role in the world.

How did overseas expansion cause debates over America's international role?

With Frederick Jackson Turner's thesis, which argued that the Western Frontier closing would limit America's opportunities, new arguments emerged for overseas expansion to renew the American dream of opportunity. When given the chance, America quickly took over Hawaii. Imperialists argued that the the expansion and conquering of Hawaii was just the natural extension to the Manifest Destiny it had previously exercised. They also argued that taking over these territories will give America more opportunities for natural resources or access to trade in the Pacific. Furthermore, the ideology of Social Darwinism was used to justify American expansion as a way to enlighten "lesser races." This was evident in the poem "The White Man's Burden," which enforced that America has a job to liberate the world from savagery.

Paralleling the imperialist arguments, a strong anti-imperialist opposition emerged. Anti-imperialists drew from the idea of self-determination, the idea that countries get to choose their own government. From this, they argued that others, like Americans, deserve the right to self governance. Other anti-imperialists strongly held on to the American tradition of Isolationism, which was set in place by Washington's Farewell Address.

Defeating Spain in the Spanish American War, America quickly acquired the Philippines, Guam, Cuba, and Puerto Rico. With new territories in the Caribbean and Latin America, America had strengthened their presence with the Roosevelt Corollary. Despite promising the Filipinos independence from imperialism, the US quickly turned to suppress the uprisings lead by Emilio Eguinaldo.

How did WWI cause debates over America's international role?

WWI challenged America's tradition of isolationism. In the past, the Washington Farewell Address and the Monroe Doctrine had set strong precedents that the US should stay away from alliances and entanglements with European powers. Although America initially declared itself as neutral, it always leaned on the side of the allied forces as it consistenly traded with Britain. Turning the public opinion, events like the Zimmerman Telegraph and the sinking of Lusitania created anger and urged President Woodrow Wilson to enter the war to make the world safe for democracy, as expressed in his fourteen points. Breaking the tradition of isolationism, Wilson sent over the American Expeditionary Force in 1917 to Europe. Most American casualties during this war was due to disease instead of combat, and the war ended way faster than expected, showing that American forces played a limited role but was important to the allied victory.

After the war, Wilson persistently tried negotiating the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations to the Senate, but failed to pass either one. Wilson especially tried to push for joining the League of Nations as international institutions were a vital part of his fourteen points. However, the Senate retained the tradition for isolationism and refused to be caught in foreign alliances, especially within Europe. A senator, Henry Cabot Lodge, had also argued that joining the League of Nations would pass over some of Congress' power over to the League of Nations.

Continuing down a path of isolationism after the war, America sought to continue a unilateral and self-focused international policy. They continued the idea of dollar diplomacy, the idea that the US will not engage in conflicts but instead try to secure investments in other countries for banks. They also engaged in the Kellogg-Briand Pact, which sought to reduce military confrontations, and the Washington Naval Conference, which restricted the amount of battleships the US, Britain, and Japan could build. However, America participated in particular interventions, like in Nicaragua, to maintain a sense of American power. During the Great Depression, FDR had passed two Neutrality Acts to cement American isolation. This influenced the rise of the America First Committee under Charles Lindbergh and the cement had held on for a little while.

How did WWII bring America into a position of international power?

The German Occupation of France, the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Nazi concentration camps, and the Holocaust compelled America to join the WWII as a total war between Democracy and Fascism. Before declaring war, America had done much the same as it had in WWI, just producing supplies for the allies. The Lend-Lease Act was passed, which allowed America to lend supplies to Britain, a direct show that they were not at all neutral. However, America quickly picked up after Pearl Harbor and declared war on the axis countries.

Joining WWII, America engaged in a full mobilization effort, leading to the immediate end to the Great Depression. America's strong industrial economy provided much need supplies to the allied troops, giving them a large advantage. During this time of mobilization, women and minorities were quickly able to improve their positions. Women quickly filled into industrial and health care jobs. Though still facing segregation, African Americans had joined the ranks of other Americans in the military and worked in factories. However, African Americans continued pushing for what was called the Double Victory Campaign, a win on the battlefield and a win for social equality. They achieved momentary ends to segregation with FDR's Executive Order 8802, which removed all segregation in the work place. Mexicans, under the Bracero program, had also been encouraged to join the labor force for the mobilization effort. The Chinese Exclusion Act was also repealed during WWII, loosening the nativist constructs of America. Despite all these advancements, Japanese Americans faced internment which was upheld in the court case Korematsu vs US.

The allied forces eventually won the war for a multitude of reasons. First, in the Tehran Conference, FDR, Churchill, and Stalin had strong cooperation in planning an attack on the peripheries of axis countries, then launching an offensive to reclaim France. The second reason was that the allies had created superior technologies and scientific advancements such as the Manhattan Project's atomic bombs, the use of Sonar detection, and the first modern computer by Alan Turing to decipher German message encryptions. The third reason was the US' strong industrial production and total mobilization which kept allied supplies replenishing. Lastly, well planned military tactics such as Island-Hopping and D-Day proved successful. With the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ending the war, conversations were sparked about the morality of atomic bombs and their ability to kill thousands of civilians.

At the end of the war, Europe and Asia suffered major damage while America's economy was revived. To prevent another global armed confrontation, especially with atomic bombs, America this time gave in and fully abandoned Washington's Farewell Address. The US joined the United Nations, serving as a permanent member of their security council. America had at last made its way to the top.